Why Is Glacier Equilibrium Line Altitude Important Environmental Sciences Essay

Why Is Glacier Equilibrium Line Altitude Important Environmental Sciences Essay Explain With Examples Why the Glacier Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) Is Of Such Key Importance for the Glacier-Climate Relationship. Palaeoclimatic reconstructions based on the limits of former glaciers use estimates of the associated equilibrium line altitudes (Benn and Gemmell 1997). The equilibrium line altitude is defined as the elevation at which mass balance is equal, where accumulation of snow is exactly balanced by ablation over a period of a year (Hoinkes, 1970) meaning that mass balance and the equilibrium line altitude for individual glaciers are usually strongly correlated (Braithwaite and Raper 2010). Therefore there is a very close connection between the Equilibrium Line Altitude and local climate, providing an important indicator of glacier response to climate change and hence allowing for reconstructions of former climates and the prediction of future glacier behaviour (Benn and Lehmkuhl, 2000). In order to truly understand the, often complicated, relationship between a glaciers equilibrium line altitude and the corresponding climate of the local area, definitions of mass balance, accumulation and ablation area and the equilibrium line altitude, must be initially discussed. The ablation area is the lower region of a glacier where snow loss (ablation) exceeds snowfall. The melting of the glacier and the calving of icebergs is the major form of ablation, expressed quantitatively as units of water equivalent, given in meters (Braithwaite 2002). The accumulation area is the upper region of a glacier where snow accumulation exceeds melting. A simplified description in the identification of a cirque depicts the area being an arm chair-shaped bowl (Flint 1971) with the headwall exceeding 35 degrees and the arcuate floor underachieving 20 degrees (Evans 1977). Accumulation occurs mostly through snowfall whether it is direct or blown from neighbouring plateaus and summits. The equilibrium line altitude (ELA) is the boundary between the ablation area and the accumulation area, the elevation at which mass balance is equal, where accumulation of snow is exactly balanced by ablation over a period of a year (Hoinkes 1970). Glacier mass balance is the total difference between the gains and losses over a given period of time, for example a calculation of positive mass, explains that the glacier is gaining mass overall and a negative calculation when the glacier is being seen as losing mass (Benn and Evans 1997). On many glaciers, the amount of annual ablation and accumulation varies systematically with altitude, although this simple pattern is often complicated by local influences. Glacier mass balance reflects the climate of the region in which the glacier is situated together with site specific glacier morphology and local topographic setting. The idea of mass balance is therefore an important link between climatic inputs and glacier behaviour allowing the advance and retreat of many glaciers to be understood in terms of region or global climatic change. Because the equilibrium line is the place where annual accumulation totals exactly balance ablation totals, the ELA is closely connected with local climate, particularly precipitation and air temperatures, being highly sensitive to perturbations in either of these 2 variables, with rises in response to decreasing snowfall and/or increasing frequency of positive air temperatures and vice versa (Benn and Evans 1997). Perhaps the best illustration of glacier-climate interaction is the relationship between the net balance and the ELA. When the annual mass balance of the glacier as a whole is negative the ELA rises, and when the balance is positive, the ELA falls. Variations in the altitude of the equilibrium line on a particular glacier, therefore, can be used as an indicator of climatic fluctuations (Kuhn, 1981). It is useful to specify the climate at the ELA as some unique combination of precipitation and temperature. (Benn and Evans) If a climate change occurs that increases the mass balance the glacier will advance, in an attempt to reach a new equilibrium position. The surplus of accumulation that exists must be balanced by an increase in ablation, which is accomplished by expanding the low-elevation terminus zone of the ablation area. If a climate change occurs that overall reduces the mass balance, the glacier will retreat in an attempt to achieve equilibrium. The retreat will reduce the area of the glacier in the lowest elevation terminus area where ablation is highest. If by retreat mass balance equilibrium is reached the glacier will cease retreating. However, the definition of the ELA initially does not imply that the glacier is in equilibrium and therefore the glacier may be gaining or losing mass on an annual basis. The ELA value associated with zero annual mass balance for the whole glacier is known as the steady-state ELA. When the annual ELA coincides with the steady-state ELA, ice mass and geometry are in equilibrium with climate, and the glacier will neither grow nor shrink. (Benn and Lehmkuhl 2000) However, majority of individual glacier ELAs deviate significantly from local climate ideals due, for example, to patterns of shading and snow redistribution by wind and avalanching. The main variables affecting mass balance at the ELA are winter precipitation (accumulation) and summer temperatures (ablation). A strong relationship exists between summer temperature and precipitation at the ELA of modern glaciers and this has been shown empirically by Ohmura et al. (1992) for 70 glaciers worldwide. Ohmura et al. found that winter accumulation plus summer precipitation (= annual precipitation) had a close relationship with summer temperature (Jun/July/Aug) However, Hughes and Braithwaite (2008) showed that the relationship between accumulation and summer temperature at the glacier ELA was more complicated with annual temperature range playing an important role. They continued to show that because of the role of annual temperature range, there must be a relationship between annual mean temperature and accumulation on a glacier Within the following pages the focus develops upon tropical glaciers in the Andes range, due to their particular degree of variance along latitude in relation to the zero degree isotherm. The difference between the ELA and 0 °C isotherm is a good indicator of the sensitivity of tropical glaciers to climatic global warming. It rises significantly from below zero meters in the inner tropics to several hundred metres in the outer tropics. From below zero degrees: the 0 °C isotherm is above the ELA (Kaser and George 1997). Thus, glaciers in the outer tropics may be more easily affected by changes in precipitation as it governs the albedo and radiation balance. The outer tropics and inner tropics vary significantly regarding this, illustrating the extent of variability of glacier-climate relationships. Within the Peruvian Andes, mass accumulation takes place only during the wet season and predominately in the upper parts of the glaciers, whereas ablation occurs throughout the whole ye ar. Thus, the vertical budget gradient is much stronger on tropical tongues than on those in mid latitudes (Lliboutry, morales and Schneider, 1997). Consequently under equilibrium conditions, tropical ablation areas are markedly smaller and the accumulation area ratio (AAR) has to be considered larger than in mid latitudes (Kaser and George 1997). (Benn et al 2005) Glaciers of the tropics and subtropics inhabit high altitudes and differ in important ways from mid-and high-latitude glaciers in lower topographic settings. Consequently the methods used to reconstruct and interpret former glacier equilibrium line altitudes in low altitude regions need to be tailored to local conditions, as methods and protocols developed for other settings may not be appropriate. Annual variations in mean daily temperatures are smaller than diurnal temperatures ranges. This constancy in the mean daily temperatures in the topics means that the 0 degree Celsius atmospheric isotherm maintains a fairly constant altitude and ablation occurs on the lower parts of glaciers all year. Vertical mass balance profiles are also influenced by climatic setting. In the humid tropics ablation gradients tend to be steeper than in drier environments, due to altitudinal variations in the amount of snow, sleet and rain falling on the ablation zone during the wet months. Thus the mass balance profiles of tropical glaciers tend to exhibit a sharper inflection at the equilibrium line than those of mid latitudes glaciers. The accurate reconstruction of past ELAs requires that the extent and morphology of the former glaciers can be accurately determined. Furthermore the age of the reconstructed glacier needs to be determined to enable researchers to use the ELAs as proxies for past climatic conditions (Benn 2005). The simplest assumption is that all ELA can be attributed to changes in temperature, which can be estimated by using an assumed average environmental lapse rate in the atmosphere. However, if there were associated changes in precipitation, the estimated temperature change would be different. The point applies even in humid tropics. For example, Kaser and Osmaston 2002 found that 20th century changes in the ELAs of glaciers in the Cordillera Blanca cannot be determined by temperature changes alone, but were also influenced by changes in humidity. However, the difficulty of separating out the temperature and precipitation signals need not negate the usefulness of ELA in providing palaeoclimatic information. Glaciers of the Peruvian Cordillera Blanca region represent more than 25% of all tropical glaciers with the 260 glaciers stretching for 130km, reaching 6000m level at several summits. The climate is characterised by small seasonal but large daily temperature variations and the alteration of a pronounced dry season and wet season bringing 70-80% of the annual precipitation. ELA recordings were taken for the 1930s and 1950s on the massif of Santa Cruz, Alpamayo, Pucahirca, in the northern part of the cordillera Blanca by Kaser and George in 1997. The Accumulation Area method was utilised to determine the mean ELA, results highlighting a general reduction of precipitation amounts, mainly during the wet season and therefore a reduction in accumulation. A vertical shift of 35 to 58 meters was also observed a significant rise showing glacier shrinkage and tongue retreat. It is suggested that a reduction in air humidity and its effect on the above mentioned atmospheric circulation system i s the main reason for this determined retreat of the glaciers between 1930 and 1950 as it influences the mass balance in various respects. Furthermore, the rise of the ELA shows different values across the Santa Cruz Pucahirca massif. Concluding, Kaser and George (1997) notify the reader that a combination of spatially uniform rising in air temperature and a decrease in air humidity with spatially different effects has to be taken into account as a cause for the glacier retreat between 1930 and 1950. A second case study, located between 8.5 and 9 °N, the Cordillera de Merida within the Venezuelan Andes, a region within the tropics, which possesses evidence suggesting glacial ice coverage was abundant in the past. Three geographic sub-regions were studied by Schubert (1984) with the view to reconstruct 9 palaeoglaciers. Two methods to determine ELA were used to develop paleoclimatic assumptions: Accumulation Area Ratio method and the Accumulation Area Balance Ratio. The above methods enabled the approximation of ELA during the LGM (last glacial maximum). Results acquired from the study were that the ELA of the individual glaciers lowered in response to decreased air temperatures and increased snow during the LGM. The in depth Investigation revealed the ELA of the 9 observed glaciers would have experienced a lowering of roughly 850-1420m throughout the LGM, coinciding with decreased air temperatures. The palaeoglacier reconstruction demonstrated the spatial extent to which the eq uilibrium line altitude is susceptible to change in response to climatic changes within the Cordillera de Merida. Conclusions implied a support towards a later proposition that a glaciers ELA is closely connected with the surrounding local climate (Benn and Lehmkuhl 2000). The following final case study locates within the Cordillera Real and Cordillera de Quimsa Cruz, in the Bolivian Andes, due to the low latitude, glaciation within the area is reduced and glaciers are small (80% cover less than 0.5  km ²). Within the study Rabatel et al (2008) 15 proglacial margins were investigated, leading to a further reduction of 10 principle moraines being identified that mark the successive positions of glaciers over the last four centuries. The ELA was determined on each glacier using the Accumulation Area Ratio method. The reconstruction of the glacier ELA and observations of any changes in mass balance, Rabatel et al (2998) expressed that glacier maximum may be due to a 20 to 30% increase in precipitation and a 1.1 to 1.2 degrees Celsius decrease in temperature compared with present conditions. Increasing accumulation of snow above the ELA suggests snowfalls have a strong influence on the net radiative balance in the ablation zone via the albedo. The rese archers continue to explain that within the early 18th century, glaciers began to retreat at varying rates until the late 19th to early 20th century; this trend was generally associated with decreasing accumulation rates. By contrast, glacier recession in the 20th century was mainly the consequence of an increase in temperature and humidity. Although the ELA of a glacier, past or present can be a first-rate proxy for the glacier-climate relationship, the methodology chosen can greatly effect the interpretation of the results. Different reconstruction methods of changes in ELA may produce a range of results for the same glacier and therefore inconsistent and unreliable conclusions will be inferred. Ramage et al (2005) compared ELA reconstruction methods within the Junà ­n Plain in the central Peruvian Andes. Descriptions of each method were given and limitations were highlighted. The Toe-to-Headwall Altitude Ration method, a commonly used method due to its relative ease of determining ELAs using map data, expressed that low errors were still evident. The Accumulation Area Ratio method: based on the empirically derived ratio of accumulation area to total area of glacier, however, AARs are likely to be highly variable between glaciers even within small regions, depending on the extent and distribution of debris cover in th e ablation area, and the relative importance of direct snowfall and avalanching as mechanisms of accumulation (Benn and Lehmkuhl 2000) A more accurate method of palaeo ELA calculation is the Furbish and Andrews (1984) Accumulation Area Balance Ratio a method developed due to the inconsistencies within the AAR not accounting for altitudinal distribution of a glaciers surface area. Therefore, this method can be used to derive ELA under assumed steady-state conditions and uses an idealised linear mass balance curve to calculate ELA. Ramage et al (2005) concluded that the methods did not greatly differ for this region and morphology, yet each method possessed different correlation values. The relationships between climate, glaciers and topography are, however, not those of simple cause and effect but are characterized by interdependence. They are also scale and time-dependent in that as a glacier grows it increasingly modifies its climate and the topography (Sutherland 1984). In addition Hodge et al (1998) suggests that although the ELA is a phenomenal proxy for determining glacier climate relationships, it can unfortunately be influenced by other non-climatic factors; for example avalanche, topographic variances and debris fall (Hodge et al 1998). Avalanche can equal increased accumulation, thus a positive mass balance equating to an ELA fall. This can occur regardless of climatic influence; therefore the resulting ELA may not give a 100% accurate representation of the glacier-climate relationship. Smith et al (2005) argues further, that reconstructed tropical LGM ELA lowering may be due to local enhancing factors not solely climate. Additionally, glacier melting, co upled with avalanches, climate and local geographic topography may distort the observed ELA with reference to climatic impact therefore not 100% accurate for indicating glacier-climate relationship. In addition to the ELA other variables have been measured that allow inferences to be made about the relationship between glaciers and the associated past climate. Radiation is a major component in the ablation of ice from glaciers and the effectiveness of radiation on a glacier is a function of the aspect, slope and nature of the snow or ice cover of the glacier surface as well as latitude, date and time of day (Sutherland 1984). Various energy-balance models (Williams, 1975; 1979; Kuhn, 1981) have been devised to model these factors and explain the distribution of present-day and former glaciers as well as investigate general glacier/climate relationships. In the South East Grampians, Sissons and Sutherland (1976) established that the deviation of one unit of the isolation factor from the local value for a horizontal glacier was equivalent to raising or lowering the ELA by 25 m, thus providing a physical link between the two variables. Studies of modern glaciers, particularly of the relationships between their mass balance and the local climate, have provided a sound physical basis on which past climates can be inferred from former glaciers. Studies of the mass balance of modern glaciers have indicated that the equilibrium line altitude is the most critical parameter in the link between glaciers and climate (Sutherland 1984). In relation to tropical glacier regions, sharp changes in the area of the 0 °C isotherm level, highlights the sensitivity of the ELA to climatic changes, posing the notion that to truly understand the complex association between the ELA and the glacier-climate relationship, knowledge on its relative position to the 0 °c level is required. Furthermore, it is safe to assume that the ELA to some extent is a good indicator of climatic change especially in relation to tropical glaciers which have a greater degree of sensitivity to climate. However, it must be noted that there are non-climatic i nfluences upon the calculated ELA for any glacier, past or present and therefore the glacier-climate relationship is a far more complex issue to observe and understand.

Comics: A Better Means To An Artistic End Essays -- Argumentative Pers

Comics: A Better Means To An Artistic End If a line of symmetry were to be drawn down the center of the paper, it would seem that each character rests within his environment about to collide with the other. Even without words, a vivid story begins to formulate in my mind, and hopefully I share the artist's vision. Comic book art is the Pez dispenser of modernism. The aesthetics of this accessible medium walk side by side with pop culture. No other art form can reach so many people due to its incredible volume. Each Wednesday of every week brings new issues of titles that have been in circulation for decades. Despite the vast numbers that arrive at retailers each month and the respect they sometimes receive (like Art Speigelman's Pulitzer Prize winning Maus), comics are under appreciated in the literary world, but why? They use a clever organization of symbols to express concepts shared by all people in their own social environment, and provide more tools than conventional art to truly show artistic intention. Comic artists choose to express personal thought with universally complex themes through a symbolic medium. No one refutes the idea that comics do not demonstrate realistic form. Comic artists do not attempt to portray the simple beauty of the natural world; rather, they try to relate a universal idea with a stylistic approach. Magritte's painting of a pipe with the inscription, "this is not a pipe," at the bottom demonstrates the way in which comic books are misunderstood. In his explanation of the art form, Scott McCloud uses pictures of various characters following Magritte's structure. For example, he draws a picture of a cow and states that "this is not a cow" (McCloud 26). The pictures only resemble what we a... ... connection. A conventional expressionist must assume that the observer realizes the purpose of his or her art. Many people see a portrait as just a portrait, when the mood and the intricate detail of the face add to its meaning. Comics, on the other hand, are expected to be symbols enveloped in a detailed history that replaces the wobbling bridge between reader and artist with a strong one suspended by invisible messages from creator to potential viewer, messages anyone can see. Works Cited Carrier, David. The Aesthetics of Comics. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000. Crain, Dale, ed. Batman: Black and White. New York: DC Comics, 1998. McCloud, Scott. Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art. New York: Harper Perennial, 1993. Thompson, Don, and Dick Lupoff, eds. The Comic-Book Book. New York: Arlington House, 1973. Comics: A Better Means To An Artistic End Essays -- Argumentative Pers Comics: A Better Means To An Artistic End If a line of symmetry were to be drawn down the center of the paper, it would seem that each character rests within his environment about to collide with the other. Even without words, a vivid story begins to formulate in my mind, and hopefully I share the artist's vision. Comic book art is the Pez dispenser of modernism. The aesthetics of this accessible medium walk side by side with pop culture. No other art form can reach so many people due to its incredible volume. Each Wednesday of every week brings new issues of titles that have been in circulation for decades. Despite the vast numbers that arrive at retailers each month and the respect they sometimes receive (like Art Speigelman's Pulitzer Prize winning Maus), comics are under appreciated in the literary world, but why? They use a clever organization of symbols to express concepts shared by all people in their own social environment, and provide more tools than conventional art to truly show artistic intention. Comic artists choose to express personal thought with universally complex themes through a symbolic medium. No one refutes the idea that comics do not demonstrate realistic form. Comic artists do not attempt to portray the simple beauty of the natural world; rather, they try to relate a universal idea with a stylistic approach. Magritte's painting of a pipe with the inscription, "this is not a pipe," at the bottom demonstrates the way in which comic books are misunderstood. In his explanation of the art form, Scott McCloud uses pictures of various characters following Magritte's structure. For example, he draws a picture of a cow and states that "this is not a cow" (McCloud 26). The pictures only resemble what we a... ... connection. A conventional expressionist must assume that the observer realizes the purpose of his or her art. Many people see a portrait as just a portrait, when the mood and the intricate detail of the face add to its meaning. Comics, on the other hand, are expected to be symbols enveloped in a detailed history that replaces the wobbling bridge between reader and artist with a strong one suspended by invisible messages from creator to potential viewer, messages anyone can see. Works Cited Carrier, David. The Aesthetics of Comics. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000. Crain, Dale, ed. Batman: Black and White. New York: DC Comics, 1998. McCloud, Scott. Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art. New York: Harper Perennial, 1993. Thompson, Don, and Dick Lupoff, eds. The Comic-Book Book. New York: Arlington House, 1973.

Can built form influence social problems?

The concept of social problems is linked to a wide spectrum of contrasting definitions. Jerome G Monis defines it as â€Å"these social conditions identified by scientific enquiry and values as detrimental to human well-being†. On the other hand Malcom Spector and Jon I Kitsuse defined them as â€Å"the activities of individuals or groups making assertion of grievance and claims with respect to some putative conditions†. (http://syg2010-01.fa04.fsu.edu/Week_1.htm) Taking into consideration the different approaches to this debate the point that the main reason for people's behaviour is physical form can be argued. Urban form can be seen as one of the reason for social behaviour but to deny the influence of social, economical and political factors is to simplify the complexity of society and the different relationships within it. In any case both arguments will always be episodes in the long saga of traditional controversy. Social problems have been divided into 3 groups by Kenneth C Land (www.soc.duke.edu): Deviant behaviour, including drug and alcohol abuse, mental illness, crime and violence. Social inequality and conflict including aging, the ederly, racial and ethnics relations, the sexes and gender inequality, poverty and economic inequality and homelessness. Finally, human groups and social change which include the changes in the economy and workplace. The social problems that can be correlated directly to urban form are seen as the one under the social inequality category and antisocial behaviour. The line of thought that establishes that the built form influences directly to social problems has been named architectural determinism and assume that the layout and form of physical environment would shape, even determine the quality of social life. During the period following the Second World War the architects of the Bauhaus and architects such as Le Corbusier thought that they were in a position to alter society for the better through the medium of physical design. By design we understand the design of a whole town as well as the design of relatively small scale units. Maurice Broady described this as â€Å"the architects who builds a house or design a site plan who decides where the roads will and will not go and who decides which directions the houses will face and how close together they will be, also is, to a large extent, deciding the pattern of social life among the people who will live in these houses. It asserts that architectural design has a direct and determinate effect on the way people behave† ( Maurice Broady 1968 cited in Taylor, N, 1998). The case of the Business Academy located on Bexley and designed by Norman Foster can be an example of how a radical project has changed students behaviour towards education. Very different to the 1960's building where students use to attend lessons, the Academy is an open-plan where lessons are carried out in alcoves and where no division of spaces have been created. The Business Academy has been seen as a success where â€Å"the proportion of children at school achieving five good grades at GCSE has leapt from just 6% to 36%† (www.channel4.com/culture/microsites/b/building/shortlist.htm). The results of this achievement could change the life style of the generation of students attending lessons in the building. The improvement of the education can bring a change for better work opportunities for the students and at the same time will have an impact on the perception of one of London's most deprived areas. A building can also change the perception of the character of a city. Frank Gehry's Guggenheim Museum transformed Bilbao from an industrial Spanish Basque region to an international tourist destination. But is this, just the building form, which has made the difference? To resume the success of some enterprises or the failure of others in physical terms is to simplify the complexity of society. We can attribute the achievement of the Norman Fosters' project to the conjunction of a different kind of built environment, when compared with more traditional educative centres, and the introduction of new and innovative educational techniques. On the other hand the fact that such an important architect has designed a revolutionary building to be used as a school can have changed people's perception about education. It has built a sense of identity among the pupils and indirectly has lead them to improve their performance. On the other hand Guggenheim Museum has demonstrated the importance of power and identity. It has been part of the political strategy from an elite in order to change the image of one of the most problematic niches of nationalism in Spain, that is Bilbao. It does not only offer an optimistic view of the city but it also can be seen as the attempt of internationalisation of the Spanish culture after the cultural archaism of Francoism. It involves a tourist campaign which had the objective of promoting the city and radical regeneration projects which have improved the services and have transformed the vision of the city. Consequently, built form is only a minor reason for the development of social problems. Social problems find causes in social conditions. Giddens argues that â€Å"everyday lives are, of course, influenced, reproduced and changed by structures of social, economical and political power† (Giddens cited in Dickens 1990, pg 3) and it is extremely difficult to generalise about these affects. Physical space is socially constructed by people's perceptions. What Giddens calls Locales are spaces which â€Å"are indeed usually socially specified for some kinds of activities. Locales carry social meanings and symbols which are widely accepted and which considerably affect social relations† (Giddens cited in Dickens 1990, pg5). They affect how people interpret their own and people's circumstances. Physical space is socially constructed. There is a socially constructed perception in Britain about areas characterised by high, concrete, block of flats. This kind of housing has always been associated with high levels of graffiti, vandalism and litter. Alice Coleman argues â€Å"that vandalism take place in zones where residents are unable to keep a watch over who is entering or leaving their estates† (A. Coleman, 1985, pg158). They are seen as impersonal, stratified dwellings and undesiderable places to live. Crime, antisocial behaviour, unemployment, poverty and inequality are seen as distinctive features of these places. But factors such as poor services, no good transport links, authority government tenure and the meeting of several marginalised groups suffering from what Durkheim called anomya â€Å"condition or malaise in individuals, characterized by an absence or diminution of standards or values, and an associated feeling of alienation and purposeneless† (www.free-definition.com/Anomie.html) are ve ry relevant when considering the main reasons for this kind of problem. People who are not satisfied with society, who have not got the same access to commodities than the major part of the population and that experience from the indifference of institutions, which are characterised by low skill occupations, family disorganisation, poverty, illiteracy and racism suffers are grouped in this kind of residential development which are cheap to build and can accommodate a large number of people in minimal space. These people are the product of â€Å"exacerbation of a logic of economic and racist exclusion† (Savage, Warden & Ward, 2003, pg76). Again we can argue here whether the physical environment is the reason for these problems and again a new example contradicts the simplicity of the architectural determinism discourse. Spain, as almost all European cities is flat based. Almost 80% of the population in Spain live in flats. People in Spain have been brought up living in high density block of flats. The perception of people about living in this kind of housing is completely different to the British one. Being the common norm between the population it does not lead to any of the social problems described above. They are not associated to vandalism and poor quality accommodation. They are the standard residential housing where people live. The areas where vulnerable groups live are characterised by poor links of transport, no easy access to schools, located on the outskirts of the city and who residents are immigrants or part of a minor ethnic group. They are tenure tenants that lack sense of identity with the place where they live, lack of resources and are victims of some conditions that are made difficult to improve their situation. The areas where they live are characterised by the use of cheap materials and an even higher density than in other areas. Families live in small flats where they have to share rooms. The combination of all this features, together with the difficulties to establish zones of autonomy and self management is what, in Spain, generate major social problems and no the fact that people live in this type of housing. Even the new theories which aim to explain social change and society within the context of postmodernity claim that the city will evolve as mean of facilitating interpersonal communication â€Å"Although individuals live in a particular place and participate in community life in and around that place, it is interaction and not place that is the essence of life† (Clark, 2003, pg 139). Once again the importance of predominant social conditions over physical form are highlighted in order to understand the future of the cities or urban form and consequently its social costs. The global village is the sociological destination of the city. The power of media will spread urban values. Information, and no physical design, is being the basis for an explanation of the present and future society and of people way of living and behaviours. Information is the leviathan that will lead future changes and policies. Practically speaking in planning grounds, the future of the city is called â€Å"compact city† and will be the fruit of an urban renaissance supported by governments and elite groups. In its July 12 Spending Review the government announced â€Å"a 50% increase in new social house building†¦an extra 10,000 homes a year†¦and further plans to increase housing supply and improved affordability by funding the Sustainable Communities Plan to deliver 200,000 additional homes in the Thames Gateway and other growth areas† (http://global.factiva.com/en/arch/print-results.asp). The government has named this project urban renaissance and it involves the better use of buildings within developed land to accommodate about 3.8 million new households between 1996 and 2021 and to do this the government â€Å"supports the idea of the ‘compact city', that is a higher density, mixed use development on brownfield land close to public transport nodes† (Burton, 2002, pg 537). This encouraged urban renaissance will imply the adoption of high density constructions in order to satisfy the demand for new housing at minimal environmental costs and this means a high proportion of apartments and terrace houses. The benefits will be â€Å"the conservation of the countryside, less need to travel by car, thus reduced fuel emissions, support for public transport and walking and cycling, better access to services and facilities, more efficient utility and infrastructure provision and revitalisation and regeneration of inner urban areas† (Burton, 2002, pg 538). But which will be the social problems attributed to this new concept of housing form? According to Elisabeth Burton, nine social problems have been seen by population as are related to compactness (Burton, 2002, pg 547-548): * access to superstores * access to green open space * public transport use * extent of walking and cycling * amount of domestic living space * death rate from mental illness * crime * social segregation * death rate for respiratory disease. Again we can argue that although some of the social problems can be seen as a product of this kind of development they are not directly correlated to built form. The invocation of the high-rise horrors of post war urban Britain and the congested squalor of Victorian Britain is where Bowers see the root of this apprehension (Bowers cited in Jenks, Burton and Williams, 1996). For example the difficult access to services may find is cause in the increase in number of users within an area but may also be seen as lack of appropriate infrastructure and therefore a failure in developer and government's attempt of offering the necessary infrastructure for a new development. On the other hand, why does it promote crime and social segregation or how can it be associated to mental illness? When people live in close proximity they are more aware of the existence of neighbours and there are more opportunities to informally interact with your neighbours. The relationship between people living within flats is less gregarious. It also provides casual surveillance and respect for property. For designers and housing providers seeking to promote social equity, and according to the research developed by Elisabeth Burton, higher-density housing such apartments and terraces are the best form of housing, â€Å"especially if they are developed on derelict land in areas where there are plenty of locally-provided services and facilities† (Burton, 2002, pg 558). The extent to which built form influences social problems has therefore been seen as very limited. The confluence of several economic, social, political and environmental reasons results in the creation of social problems. In addition, the weight of the importance of the built form, when taking into consideration the different social problems, tend to change from one country to another depending on the perception of the different kind of built form by the population. This perception will always be shaped according to the culture and socialization the individual has experienced. What in some countries is seen as undesiderable form of housing in others is the common norm. In Britain â€Å"compact city† has been proved to be the best option for future urban development if sustainable reasons are taking into account. The promotion of places that make efficient use of available space and environmental resources will lead to the adoption of high-density development. This residential housing has been seen through history as a reason for the emergence of social problems and people associate this type of built environment to vandalism, crime and social inequality. The introduction of this new model into planning practice will need to be seen together with changes in the population mentality and will meet several difficulties when confronting well rooted ways of thinking. People will have to be educated to accept the change. It will not create additional social problems if it incorporates features that improve people's quality of life like high standard local services and an easy reach of a range of facilities. This new concept of built form will generate debates and modification in people's constructed reality before being able to be generally accepted, a shift in people's attitudes towards the new form of housing. It needs to be an attractive option and it will involve action and investment from government and agencies in order to disassociate false presumptions about this kind of built form.

In J. M. Coetzee’S Waiting For The Barbarians, The Magistrate

In J. M. Coetzee’s Waiting For the Barbarians, the magistrate is highly concerned with being recognized as a good and just man. In â€Å"Existentialism is a Humanism†, Jean-Paul Sartre discusses how people should be held accountable for their actions and that it is one’s actions that defines them. Both Coetzee and Sartre discuss what it means to be a good person and what defines an action as good. From an existential viewpoint, if one only causes harm, they would be viewed as a harmful person even if their intentions were perfectly harmless. One the other hand, one who mostly commits good deed would be seen as a fine individual. This idea can be applied to the magistrate in Waiting For the Barbarians. Though the magistrate would like to be†¦show more content†¦The magistrate could have saved them from Colonel Joll and the soldier, but instead, the magistrate chose to protect his job and his relationship with the Empire. Although the magistrate did not to rture the barbarians himself, by allowing the torturing to occur, his actions cannot be seen as much better than those of Colonel Joll. When the Empire soldiers decided to publicly torture barbarians, the magistrate received another opportunity to act as a good person and prevent the soldiers from committing such savage acts, but instead, he chose to waste his potential and watch the spectacle alongside the rest of the crowd. While observing the soldiers’ actions, the magistrate states, â€Å"Let it at the very least be said, if it ever comes to be said, if there is ever anyone in some remote future interested to know the way we lived, that in this farthest outpost of the Empire of light there existed one man who in his heart was not a barbarian† (Coetzee 104). Though the magistrate may believe that he alone was not a barbarian in terms of how he was feeling, that does not mean that he was a good man. He still chose to stand in the crowd and watch the nomads be torture d and therefore was no better than the rest of the town. As the leader of town, the magistrate had the potential to go up to the military men and stop them from going through with the public display of torture, but the magistrate chose to waste that potential and only reacted once itShow MoreRelatedThe Magistrates Relationship with the Barbarian Girl through a Close Reading of Waiting for the Barbarians by J. M. Coetzee.1442 Words   |  6 Pagesthere is no interior, only a surface across which I hunt back and forth seeking entry. Is this how her torturers felt hunting their secret, whatever they thought it was? - pg.43. One of the central figures in J. M. Coetzees Waiting for the Barbarians is the barbarian girl. The Magistrate finds the girl maimed and nearly blind after being interrogated and tortured by the ruthless Colonel Joll, and takes her in. The Magistrates relationship with the girl revolves around his search for the girls